7.5: Intelligence

How We Are Measured

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a measure used to assess an individual’s cognitive abilities in relation to others of the same age group. IQ tests are designed to evaluate a range of intellectual functions, including logical reasoning, mathematical ability, language skills, and spatial recognition. The most commonly used IQ tests, such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, assign a score that is compared to a population average. An average IQ score is typically set at 100, with scores generally falling within a bell curve distribution. This means that the majority of people score near the average, with fewer individuals scoring extremely high or low. The scores are distributed symmetrically, with around 68% of people scoring within one standard deviation of the mean (between 85 and 115), and 95% falling within two standard deviations (between 70 and 130). While IQ tests are widely used in educational and psychological assessments, they do not capture the full spectrum of human intelligence.

Despite its widespread use, IQ testing has been criticized for its bias and limitations. Critics argue that traditional IQ tests can be influenced by cultural, social, and environmental factors that do not necessarily reflect a person’s true intellectual capacity. For instance, many IQ tests are based on language, vocabulary, and logic that may be more familiar to individuals from certain socioeconomic backgrounds or cultural contexts, disadvantaged those from different environments. Additionally, factors such as test anxiety, educational opportunities, and access to resources can affect test performance, leading to misleading conclusions about a person’s cognitive abilities. Some researchers argue that IQ tests often fail to capture other important forms of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence, creativity, and practical problem-solving skills, which may be just as crucial to success in life.

Confidence intervals for different p-values (p) when using a normal distribution.

The concept of the bell curve is often associated with IQ scores because the distribution of scores tends to form a symmetric curve, where most people score near the average, and fewer individuals score at the extremes. While the bell curve provides a convenient way to understand how scores are distributed, it has been misinterpreted and used to justify controversial ideas about intelligence. While the bell curve is a statistical tool, it is essential to approach the interpretation of IQ tests with caution and recognize the broader context in which they are applied.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg is a prominent psychologist known for his Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, which proposes that intelligence is not just a single, fixed trait but a combination of analytical, creative, and practical abilities. According to Sternberg, intelligence cannot be fully understood by only assessing traditional IQ tests, which measure analytical abilities like logical reasoning and problem-solving. Instead, he argues that creative intelligence involves the ability to think outside the box and generate novel ideas or solutions, while practical intelligence focuses on the ability to adapt to and navigate real-world environments, making decisions that may not follow clear rules or formulas. Sternberg believes that these three types of intelligence work together, and each is equally important for success in everyday life, academic achievement, and problem-solving.

Sternberg’s theory also emphasizes the importance of context in intelligence, arguing that what is considered intelligent behavior varies across cultures and situations. His successful intelligence model highlights how individuals can use their strengths in different areas of intelligence to adapt to and thrive in different contexts. Sternberg suggests that instead of focusing solely on traditional measures of intelligence, educators should foster the development of all three types of intelligence, helping students apply their creativity and practical thinking alongside analytical skills. Sternberg has also contributed significantly to education, suggesting that personalized teaching approaches and strategies should focus on nurturing students' strengths across these dimensions of intelligence to promote a more inclusive, well-rounded approach to learning.

Standardized Tests

Standardized tests in elementary and middle schools in the United States have become a significant part of the educational landscape. These tests are designed to measure students' proficiency in subjects such as reading, math, science, and writing. The most widely known standardized tests include the Statewide Assessments administered by state governments, as well as national tests like the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). The primary goal of these assessments is to evaluate how well students are meeting academic standards and to ensure that schools are providing a quality education to all students, regardless of background or location. Standardized tests are also used to hold schools accountable through the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) and the Every Student Succeeds Act (2015), which mandate that schools must show measurable progress in student performance. These tests are typically administered annually and are often used to guide educational policy decisions, funding allocations, and even teacher evaluations.

The California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP) was created in 2014 to replace the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) program and align with the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). Developed with input from the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC), CAASPP includes computer-adaptive tests in English language arts (ELA) and mathematics, as well as the California Science Test (CAST) based on the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). A key benefit of CAASPP is its emphasis on critical thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills, rather than rote memorization, providing educators with more in-depth data on student learning. Additionally, the computer-adaptive format adjusts question difficulty based on student responses, offering a more precise measure of ability. However, critics argue that high-stakes testing can lead to test anxiety, place undue pressure on students and teachers, and take away valuable instructional time. Additionally, concerns exist about equity, as students with limited access to technology or test-taking experience may struggle with the online format. Despite these challenges, CAASPP remains a central tool for assessing student achievement and guiding educational improvements in California.

While standardized testing provides valuable data on student performance at a large scale, it has become a controversial issue in American education. One concern is the narrow focus of standardized tests, which typically emphasize memorization and recall over deeper learning and critical thinking. Critics argue that this emphasis on test-taking can lead to a "teach to the test" approach, where teachers focus primarily on test content and may neglect broader aspects of education, such as creativity, social-emotional learning, and problem-solving. Additionally, standardized tests often fail to account for the diverse learning styles and backgrounds of students, leading to concerns about equity. Students from low-income families or those with learning disabilities may be at a disadvantage due to unequal access to resources, test preparation, and accommodations. This has raised questions about the fairness of using standardized tests as the sole measure of a student's abilities or a school's success.

Another criticism of standardized tests is the pressure they place on students, teachers, and schools. High-stakes testing, where results are tied to consequences such as funding or school rankings, can create an environment of stress and anxiety for both students and educators. In some cases, students may feel overwhelmed by the pressure to perform well, which can impact their mental health and overall learning experience. Teachers, on the other hand, may feel pressured to focus on test preparation at the expense of fostering a well-rounded education. Some argue that this focus on testing undermines the development of critical thinking skills, creativity, and a love for learning. As a result, there has been a growing call for alternative assessments that better capture a student’s abilities, such as project-based assessments, portfolios, and formative assessments that provide more holistic insights into student learning. The debate over standardized testing continues to evolve as educators, parents, and policymakers seek to balance accountability with a more comprehensive approach to education.