The Acquisition of Language
Language development in school-age children (typically between the ages of 6 and 12) is a dynamic process in which children expand their ability to understand and use language in increasingly sophisticated ways. At this stage, children build upon the foundational language skills they developed in early childhood, such as phonological awareness, syntax, and morphology, to engage in more complex forms of communication. Vocabulary development is one of the most significant aspects of language growth during these years. Children acquire new words rapidly through exposure to conversations, reading, and academic instruction. They not only learn the meanings of individual words but also how to use them appropriately in different contexts, expanding their semantic knowledge. As their vocabulary grows, children begin to make connections between words, understanding synonyms, antonyms, and various nuances in meaning, which allows them to express ideas with more precision.
During the school-age years, children’s vocabulary development is strongly influenced by their exposure to language in both formal and informal settings. In the classroom, children encounter new words through reading, writing, and academic discussions. Teachers can support vocabulary growth by introducing rich, varied language in lessons and encouraging students to ask about unfamiliar words. Additionally, reading comprehension plays a crucial role in vocabulary development, as children gain exposure to new words in context. As they read books across different genres and subjects, children are introduced to more specialized vocabulary related to science, history, and literature, which helps broaden their understanding of the world. Contextual clues, such as the surrounding text, can also help children infer the meaning of unknown words, enhancing their ability to understand and retain new vocabulary.
Beyond vocabulary, syntax (the rules governing sentence structure) and morphology (the study of word forms) also play a central role in language development at this stage. As children grow older, they begin to experiment with more complex sentence structures, using conjunctions, subordinate clauses, and varied sentence types to express more detailed thoughts. This is an important milestone because it allows children to communicate more effectively, whether in writing or in conversation. Teachers can encourage these advancements by prompting students to expand on their ideas, use varied sentence structures, and engage in discussions that require more complex language. Children also begin to refine their pragmatic language skills, learning to adjust their language based on the social context, such as how to speak differently with a peer versus an adult. Overall, the development of vocabulary, syntax, and pragmatics in school-age children is essential for academic success, social interaction, and cognitive growth, setting the stage for more sophisticated language use in adolescence and adulthood.
Chompsky’s Language Acquisition Device
Noam Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition proposes that humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language, a concept known as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). According to Chomsky, the LAD is a hypothetical mental mechanism that enables children to effortlessly and rapidly learn the language(s) they are exposed to, particularly during early childhood. Chomsky’s theory challenges the behaviorist view, which suggests that language learning occurs solely through imitation and reinforcement. Instead, Chomsky argued that the LAD allows children to intuitively grasp the syntax (structure) and grammar of language, even when they are not explicitly taught these rules. This innate capacity, he believed, explains why children across the world acquire language in similar stages, regardless of their specific cultural or linguistic backgrounds.
The idea of the LAD suggests that there is a universal grammar shared by all human languages, which children are naturally equipped to detect and use. This theory has significant implications for understanding the process of language acquisition, emphasizing that children do not simply memorize words and phrases but instead deduce the rules of language through exposure to their environment. For instance, even with limited input, children can generate novel sentences they’ve never heard before, showing their ability to apply grammatical rules. While Chomsky’s LAD theory has been influential in the field of linguistics, it has also faced criticism for lacking empirical evidence and for not fully accounting for the role of social interaction in language learning. Nonetheless, it remains a foundational concept in understanding how humans develop language skills at such an early age.
Bilingualism
The Iceberg analogy was given by the famous bilingual and second language researcher Jim Cummins to explain the workings of the mind with regard to bilingual acquisition.
Bilingualism offers a range of cognitive, academic, and social benefits for children. There have been several studies of research in this area. Ellen Bialystok (York University), the most prominent researcher in this field, found that bilingual individuals showed advantages in executive control functions such as task-switching. In an article posted in the Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (2013), it was noted that bilingual children performed better on tasks requiring working memory and controlled attention. Continued research has shown that bilingual individuals tend to have enhanced cognitive flexibility, allowing them to switch between tasks more easily and approach problems from different perspectives. Bilingual children often excel in tasks that require executive functioning skills, such as attention control, problem-solving, and multitasking. Additionally, learning and using two languages strengthens the brain's ability to process complex information and improves memory. In an article posted by the National Library of Medicine, Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia (Bialystok, Craik, & Freedman, 2007), it is suggested that bilingualism may delay the onset of cognitive decline and diseases such as Alzheimer’s, highlighting long-term cognitive health benefits. In academic settings, bilingual children often demonstrate superior skills in areas such as reading comprehension and vocabulary development in both languages, as they tend to have a deeper understanding of how language works.
The Iceberg Model for Bilingualism, developed by Jim Cummins, illustrates how bilingual individuals have both surface-level linguistic differences and a shared underlying proficiency (SUP) across languages. The model compares language proficiency to an iceberg, where the visible portion above the water represents the distinct features of each language, such as vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, while the larger, hidden portion beneath the surface represents the deeper cognitive and conceptual knowledge that is shared across languages. This means that skills and knowledge acquired in one language—such as problem-solving, literacy strategies, and critical thinking—can transfer to another language, supporting bilingual development. Cummins’ model highlights the interdependence between languages and reinforces the importance of strong foundational skills in a student’s first language, as they can enhance second-language learning rather than hinder it.
BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills) and CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) are two concepts introduced by Jim Cummins to explain different aspects of language proficiency in bilingual learners. BICS refers to the everyday conversational language used in social interactions, such as chatting with friends, ordering food, or playing games. It is typically acquired within one to three years and relies on context, gestures, and social cues to aid understanding. In contrast, CALP is the academic language required for success in school, including skills like reading comprehension, writing essays, and understanding complex subjects. CALP takes much longer to develop—five to seven years, or even longer—as it requires higher-order thinking, abstract reasoning, and discipline-specific vocabulary. Cummins' framework highlights the importance of supporting bilingual students beyond conversational fluency by providing academic language instruction to ensure long-term success in school and beyond.
Dual language schools have become an increasingly popular educational model that fosters bilingualism. These schools provide instruction in two languages, typically one being the students' native language and the other a second language, with the goal of developing proficiency in both. Dual language programs benefit not only language learners but also native speakers of the second language. These programs promote academic achievement by teaching students content in both languages, reinforcing their understanding of core subjects like math, science, and literature through two linguistic lenses. In addition to academic growth, dual language education helps children develop a deeper appreciation for different cultures, promotes social inclusion, and prepares students for a globalized world. Research shows that children who attend dual language schools are more likely to develop higher cultural awareness and are better equipped for future opportunities in an increasingly interconnected world.
Speech and Language Disorders
Speech and language disorders are conditions that affect an individual's ability to communicate effectively, and they can vary in terms of severity and impact. One common speech disorder is articulation disorder, where a person has difficulty pronouncing sounds correctly, making speech hard to understand. This can include problems with sound substitution, omission, or distortion, and it may persist beyond the typical age of speech development. Stuttering is another common speech disorder, characterized by disruptions in the flow of speech, such as repetitions, prolongations, or blocks. Stuttering often emerges in childhood and can be influenced by factors such as genetics, speech development, and environmental stressors. Another common condition is voice disorders, where individuals experience problems with the pitch, volume, or quality of their voice. These issues can be caused by physical problems such as vocal cord nodules, or they may result from overuse or strain of the vocal cords.
In terms of language disorders, aphasia is a condition that impairs a person's ability to produce or comprehend speech, often resulting from brain injury or stroke. Another common language disorder is expressive language disorder, where individuals have difficulty using language to express themselves, even though they may have normal comprehension skills. These children might struggle with forming sentences, using the correct words, or organizing their thoughts coherently. On the other hand, receptive language disorder affects an individual’s ability to understand spoken or written language. This can make it difficult for children to follow instructions or comprehend stories. Both expressive and receptive language disorders can significantly impact a child's academic performance and social interactions. Early identification and intervention are critical for managing these disorders, with speech-language therapy often playing a central role in treatment.
