19.5: Splicing the Information Cable
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Just as raft guide trainees are faced with both social and technical challenges that must be addressed before guiding difficult whitewater rapids, so too must members of digital communities overcome social and technical barriers when contributing to online practices. Given these challenges, proper sequencing of content becomes an important component of facilitating community interactions. The following section addresses issues associated with the sequencing and facilitation of community interactions, the publication of community information,and the development of technological infrastructure that supports these ongoing processes.
Developing Technology
With the Palm, PocketPC, and Blackberry handheld computers struggling for market share against both notebook computers and cell phones enhanced with text messaging and digital photography, the push to provide consumers with better information management tools and applications is not surprising. Manufacturers are competing fiercely to guide, or perhaps monopolize and control, the adoption of technology created by exponential growth rates in processing and data transmission capabilities over the past four decades (Technotopian Delusions, 2005[54]).
Although these applications are often designed around the commercial interests of private firms, technological standards are working to integrate these disparate information sources. The eXtensible markup language (XML) is one such standard, playing an increasingly important role in this ability to exchange and integrate application data. Through the development of industry-specific document type definitions (DTDs), system developers can clearly define how information is extracted from structured XML documents and used in new software applications.
As the complexity of information systems increase, system architects and information technology professionals have begun to develop sophisticated tools for modelling and communicating these intricate system designs (termed unified modelling language [UML] notation). Although practical examples of UML notation will be given in the following section, it is important to note that development of this notation closely follows the growth of object oriented programming practices that encourage code reuse through clearly defined and independent program modules.
The technical advancements that allow for the distribution of information over the past decade—accomplished through standardized referencing and recording practices—are often highly structured and inflexible. These information systems have largely modelled organizational structures found within small companies that benefit from centralized control, usually associated with niche expertise. As a result of these referencing and recording practices, many organizations suffer from hierarchal communication channels and myopic management, and are usually not able to respond to rapid changes in business conditions (Bieberstein et al., 2005, p. 696). For this reason IBM researchers have adopted a new form of organizational structure termed the “On Demand Workplace”. This new organizational structure provides the framework for redefining our increasingly “organic organizations” and strive to optimize the efficient exchange of information.
One method for efficiently exchanging information is by transporting data files using the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)—reliable message patterns (RMP). RMP is ideal in a networked environment. RMP provides transport of serialized content where distributed services can use XML-specific mid-tier processing.
Service oriented architecture
Frank Cohen suggests that service oriented architecture (SOA) is ideally suited to the loosely structured and decentralized communities emerging on the Web (FastSOA, p. 5). One tool available to the implementation of the service oriented architecture (SOA) implementation is the XML data model. Effective sharing between groups can be accomplished through policy enforcement regimes that use XML schema repositories (XSRs). Through XML referencing and recording of data, and effective sharing of information between groups, SOA can help define the relationship between the user and the software application.
Flexibility, rapid development, and good scalability can be encouraged with the adoption of: a common notation (UML), and a defined data model (XML). In its most basic form, SOA is a technique for component software reuse (FastSOA, p. 84). The SOA design pattern is well suited to update data aggregation services and perform complex federated service requests (Fast SOA, p. 65). This task is not easily achieved in more structured languages such as SQL.
Simple object access protocol
Mid-tier processing is used to address the difficulties that arise when flexible XML technology is merged with a relational database management system (RDBMS). Common techniques for mapping data from XML files to database storage systems use the simple object access protocol (SOAP), which “allows us to pass structured, typed data in a decentralized, distributed environment” (Lecky-Thompson et al., 2005).
The SOAP—remote procedure call (RPC) uses exponentiated encoding to map XML data structures to data objects located within trusted memory resources allocated to programming languages. As a result, “SOAP-RPC bindings instantiate up to 15,000 Java objects to deserialize the SOAP request that contain 500 elements in the SOAP message body.” (Perkins et al., p. 274).
The complex auto-binding ability that maps XML content to database storage (XML-RPC) should be used sparingly as files over 96kbs can have a dramatic impact on CPU and network bandwidth (FastSOA, p. 69). Alternatively, XML documents can be encoded literally, using SOAP-document-literal-encoding. SOAP-document-literal-encoding, however, does not allow you fine-grained control over the data source from Java.
Java and the Enterprise Java Bean
EJB stands for “Enterprise JavaBeans” which are distributed network-aware components for developing secure, scalable, transactional and multi-user components in a J2EE environment. (Sun Microsystems, 2007)
Java and PHP are both programming languages. Languages have advantages over document parsers when supplying complex mathematical and functional routine libraries. These libraries send requests for computer processing resources. For Java languages, this request is created within a Java container. The container often used for Java server page content is Project Catalina (Tomcat). Tomcat runs these libraries by establishing a trusted set of memory resources on the computer platform.
Trust is established within Java by using defined functional components as described by the Technology compatibility kits (TCK) developed through the Java community process (Dmitry A. Fazunenko, JDJ, p. 26). These technology compatibility kits (TCK) are distributed using the XML data model. TCKs ensure that vital information is distributed for the conformance testing of components such as the Enterprise JavaBeans (EJB), and are available upon subscription from Sun Microsystems.
The trusted memory resources restrict Java from accessing external resources. EJBs provide access to those restricted resources. This access is secured through highly defined relationships that coordinate and facilitate the transmission of information between the programming language and networking infrastructure. In other words, Enterprise JavaBeans can be described as a set of components that help to define a collection of properties (classes) and access points (interfaces) used to enhance interaction between the system and user.
LearningTimes, a web application, is one such example of a Java based community application. This application is built on open source (CommunityZero) technology and uses highly structured database technology distributed across multiple servers and multiple locations to offer secure, scalable, and reliable services.
XML document parsers
Data can be referenced, recorded, and organized using less complex and more flexible tools available in nativeXML document parsers such as the document object model (DOM), streaming API for XML (StAX), or Java architecture for XML Binding (JAXB) to name just a few. XML document parsers work alongside your webserver (Apache, IIS, Lighttpd [Lighty], Cherokee) to organize data using arithmetic operators (addition/subtraction and multiplication/division) without the processor-intensive mathematical libraries available to Java, Perl, Ruby, or Python.
Although a detailed explanation of document parsers is beyond the scope of this chapter, the above document parsers provide access to objects from within programming languages. Each of these processing models offers alternative design patterns. Design patterns provide structure to application program logic. As such, “the structure of a program should mirror the structure of the data that it processes” (Kroenke, 1992, p. 274). Stated another way, XML document parsers should be selected based upon; 1) the data structure within the XML data model, and 2) how that data will be used by the programming language. Table 19.2 provides a brief description of where the XML parsers mentioned above offer performance advantages:
| XML Parsers | Description |
|---|---|
| Document Object Model | Suited to situations where all elements within the data structure need to be evaluated. |
| Streaming API for XML | Suited to situations where skipping unwanted sections of the data structure provides performance advantages. |
| Java Architecture for XML Binding | Suited for referencing large elements within the data structure where both control over the serialization process and validation as a set of properties (classes) by the Java Language are required. |
Once formed, XML documents can be filtered and displayed. One tool for altering the style of XML content distributed online is the “XSL Specification, which lets you translate XML tags into other XML tags” (Sun Microsystems, 2007). These transformations can occur as a result of the native-XML parser’s ability to ‘close’ the data model; ensuring the algebraic constructions are created in a logical manner.
One advantage of using XML document parsers is their ability to distribute data collection processes to mid-tier application servers. By transferring data collection processes to community led groups, complete authority over what data is created and how data is organized can encourage new and creative forms of contribution, greater coordination and alignment of efforts, and broader engagement in community discussions and initiatives. Community groups often use a variety of methods to publish content, including wikis, blogs and RSS feeds.
This authority to manage information within the community is critical in supporting the production of knowledge. When knowledge has been created through the application of information to relevant situations, a unique community perspective emerges.
At this point, the knowledge obtained by the community can be transformed and given structure by defining a document type definition (DTD). This DTD is the foundation for sharing community practices between various groups and sub-groups. Policies for sharing this information are then enforced through a validation process that is applied through XML schema technology. As the community develops these DTD and broader engagement in community initiatives occur, a variety of policies can be created and enforced using an XML schema repository.
Interacting with Technology
So far we have tried to explain how the computer references and records information, using logical arguments and examples. Though these concepts are important to understanding technologies implementation, communication frameworks such as XML are rarely described as intuitive.
Perhaps it is this lack of intuitive understanding that constrains the adoption of technology within society, manifesting itself as a growing digital divide between demographic and social groups within communities. This division has concerned industry leading experts in ICTs for over a half century, but only recently have these concerns emerged as urgent and worthy of careful study. Today, with technology imposing on every aspect of daily lives, new initiatives, studies, and research have undergone explosive growth, resulting in the plethora of tools and applications designed to support the adoption and adaptation of technology and information.
Publication
With the emergence of Internet in the home a mere decade ago, its presence has transformed communication, entertainment, and research.
Although economic and business principles have adapted to accommodate electronic commerce, perhaps the greatest impacts associated with the Internet occurred when “technology had collided so violently with journalism” (Gillmore, 2004, para. 19). This collision forever altered how individuals contribute to the community consciousness, creating “a conversation in which the grassroots are absolutely essential” (Gillmore, 2005, p. 50).
From the humble roots of hobbyist bulletin board systems that supported text-based games, electronic messaging, and file sharing, conversations began to develop into communities. These communities, frequented primarily by local individuals (due to the high cost of long distance phone service), began to thrive. Today the need for community planning initiatives is more important then ever before. “Aggregation is the name of the game, driving users away from search engines with a flat and bulky model of the net into the arms of specialist groupings and community-led sub-nets” (Howse, 2005). As the expectation of individuals to both access and publish information grows, greater demands have been placed onto administrators for features that allow sites to quickly and easily update site content. Today a wide variety of applications are available for publication, providing everything from photo galleries to real-time collaboration of complex documents and projects.
“However, inasmuch as a monthly newsletter contributes to a community rhythm, a ScoPE community blog (in the works!) would provide more timely updates. A blog does not reach the same audience as a community newsletter, so we are investigating ways to produce and manage both.” SCoPe Case Study, written by Sylvia Currie
“The Small City site allows for daily/weekly/monthly email notices of content updates and more recently a RSS feed has been added to help push communication about these activities out so that those interested in participation are made aware and can choose to participate if they want. All these are ways in which we are attempting to foster participation.” Small Cities Case Study, written by Dan O'Reilly
Enhancing community
The abundance of technology has changed the lives of Canadians. Some researchers suggest that through open trade policies and the reduction of the barriers associated with adopting new technology, efficient distribution of information can be encouraged (Hoekman et al, 2004). Other researchers argue that, through targeted intervention, this information can be used to create new forms of learning and community practices. Though the analysis of trade policies may provide valuable insight into economic development of digital communities, we will focus here instead on the development of community learning. From this perspective, facilitating the integration of new information may provide insight into the manner in which individuals contribute to community practices, leaving the issues of personal and community economic development issues aside. If you are interested in this topic, there are several articles within the References section worth reading.
Facilitating the learning experience
Researchers have been increasingly addressing the complex issue of learning within a technologically diverse and complex social environment. Wenger (2004b) suggests that:
“The challenges that we face today can be understood as learning challenges … [and] all these challenges require accelerated learning at multiple levels of scales at once, from individuals, to communities, to regions, to the whole world. But such deep and multi-scale learning is not simply a cognitive challenge; it entails a transformation of our very identities”.
Provoking reflection and interpretation of new information supported by technological infrastructure can transform the way we engage with the world. Wenger suggests that these “complex situations where everyone belongs to very large numbers of different communities over the course of their lives and at any given time … [shows that] each person is a unique intersection of multi-membership” (Wenger, 2004b, p. 5). By leveraging this multi-membership and reifying the relationships between individuals, IBM researchers suggest that contributions to information management practices can reflect the dynamic and flexible nature of human interaction.
Conceptually, Wenger suggests that the reason human interaction is dynamic and flexible is founded in our ability to negotiate new meaning and incorporate that meaning into our community involvement and identity (2004b, p. 5). Through facilitation, it may become possible for individuals to benefit from key factors that researchers such as Wenger suggest are critical within all communities of practices—providing stimulation to the learners’ imaginations, aligning and coordinating of efforts between individuals, and engaging individuals in new practices (1998).
As technology continues to develop towards supporting newly created and dynamic teams, perhaps the facilitation of technology could benefit from group leadership and development skills. Techniques for developing these skills have been ingrained into the operational practices of leadership development and training centres such as Outward Bound and certification programs such as the Association of Canadian Mountain Guides. The following sections highlight selected techniques for developing these group leadership skills.
Facilitation techniques
Although group facilitation techniques are varied, adventure guiding researchers have identified several structural features that encourage behaviour that meets group expectations. These structural features include the group focus of activities, the use of metaphoric processing, and exposure to unfamiliar environmental conditions (Newes, n.d.). By manipulating these structural features facilitators can alter the amount of cognitive load required by participants, thus reducing stress and mental fatigue (Fabrizio & Niell, n.d., p. 6). While discomfort can initiate personal growth and development, substantial time and interaction must be provided. The proper sequencing of events and content can provide participants a natural progression towards full community participation and help individuals avoid potentially severe negative reactions that can result in social withdrawal.
If the individual adapts to the stressful new conditions the discomfort is temporary, and increases self-esteem and perceived competence. To expedite this process, expectations should be realistic. Faciliated discussions can create an atmosphere of trust, cooperation, tolerance and integrity.
Within digital communities of practice, unfamiliar environmental conditions often challenge new participants of group oriented activities. These participants can easily become overwhelmed by new terminology and technological processes. Facilitating new information through techniques such as debriefing exercises, front-loading community activities, and metaphoric examples framed within a similar context (termed isomorphic framing) may help participants adopt, and adapt to, community information.
The use of facilitated debriefing provides the participants with the opportunity for active reflection and open communication following group activities. These debriefing exercises may address specific behaviour or, more generally, provide direction and help prioritize future initiatives. Debriefing is commonly used to facilitate a greater understanding of complex or stressful events to ensure that individuals comprehend and recognize a broad community perspective.
Alternatively, activities and events can be addressed in advance by highlighting common perceptions or actions and suggesting alternative behaviours. Front-loading community activities can be advantageous when attempting to avoid specific recurring and undesirable behaviours within community interactions. Front-loading community interactions can also be combined with isomorphic framing to provide subtle guidance relating to community expectations.
Sequencing
Developing strong interpersonal communication can also be supported through carefully designed and sequenced interactions. Just as facilitation requires specific and well timed intervention, participant development can be aided by well structured and implemented opportunities to engage community participants in the accomplishment of broad based group goals and objectives. These opportunities can be presented as valued components that require attention within the digital community. Using this methodology, participants have the freedom to specialize in areas of personal interest defined within the community, while community facilitators and educators support these contributions by integrating this information into community practice and conceptual understanding.
Carefully designing and planning alternative / candidate activities for community participants can also create sub-groups based upon experience and expertise. These sub-groups can provide valuable support as individuals experience discomfort, stress, and frustration related to new and unfamiliar practices. In turn, these unfamiliar practices will become more routine and individuals will begin to participate more fully in community practices.