1.3: The Essence of Global Studies - Globalization

Learning Objectives

• Understand that you are welcomed to become a part of an increasingly diverse global community.

Introduction

At its essence, Global Studies is the study of the effects of globalization. Globalization can be defined in several ways, but generally the concept involves certain terms: connectivity, interdependence, and integration. Connectivity is defined as the characteristic, condition, or capacity of being linked or interconnected. Interdependence is described as a condition where two or more entities, individuals, or systems rely on each other. Finally, integration is understood as to shape, synchronize, or merge into a functional or cohesive entirety. Each of these concepts is important to the understanding of globalization as all three processes occur simultaneously, though each process’s presence, speed, and intensity varies by location. For example, a region, such as the Europe, may be more globally integrated economically because of globalization, yet may not be as interdependent culturally, choosing to resist this element of globalization. Given the complexity that accompanies globalization, it would be good to turn to some of the definitions that have already been embraced by the field.

Steger (2015) provides a succinct definition of globalization, as intensifying connectivity amongst people. Not only are these connections becoming stronger, but the people involved have become more aware of these connections. Sparke (2013) has a similar approach, where globalization is about global interconnections that have accelerated. Others, such as Payne (2011) understand globalization as the integration of various structures, such as markets, politics, and value systems. Smallman and Brown (2015) define globalization as “the rise of sociopolitical and economic networks that dominate local and regional interactions” (p. 24). Other scholars prefer to use metaphors to describe globalization. For example, Ritzer and Dean (2022) use liquidity to describe global affairs, explaining how the world has gone from solids, where barriers exist to freedom of movement, to one of liquid and gases where there is increasing ease of movement and ultimately hyper-mobility.

Others are less convinced that we can define globalization as growing global connectivity or interdependence. Mansbach (2013) writes that properly defining globalization can be challenging as it is inherently a complex phenomenon. For example, most definitions of globalization focus on the ‘global’ aspect. Yet just as important are the local dynamics. The global affects the local, and the local also impacts the global. Steger (2017) refers to this as the ‘global-local’ nexus and scholars have used the term glocalization to capture this process. Originally coined by Robertson in a 1980 Harvard Business Review article, glocalization refers to the concurrent manifestation of universalism and particularism, where an idea, product or service may be global, but often changes to fit the local context. A good example includes food products that originate in one country and are then adapted when consumed in another. This is evident with McDonald’s, a quintessential American fast-food establishment that is world renowned for selling American style hamburgers. Over the years, McDonald’s has expanded to more than 38,000 stores in over 100 countries. While Big Macs are available at almost every McDonald’s, stores in each country have localized their menus. For example, pork is generally not available at McDonald’s locations in certain Middle Eastern countries, whereas in India, McDonald’s restaurants do not serve beef.

 

 

 

Figure 1.3.1: Examples of glocalized food products (Sources from Left to Right, The McArabia Grilled Chicken/Grilled Kofta is a popular Arabic-themed sandwich available at all McDonald's outlets throughout the Middle East, Wikipedia Commons by Richard Allaway is licensed under CC BY 2.0; Pringles with Masala seasoning in an Indian grocery store by Dino Bozonelos, own image; Burger King menu at a store in Delhi, India by Dino Bozonelos, own image)

Another example involves sushi, a traditional Japanese dish. Sushi can now be purchased and eaten in major cities around the world. In fact, sushi as a cuisine has seamlessly integrated itself into everyday culinary practices in numerous regions worldwide. Historically, sushi restaurants located abroad were predominantly managed by Japanese proprietors, serving the needs of expatriate Japanese populations, and staffed entirely by Japanese personnel. However, this scenario has undergone a significant transformation. Nowadays, a substantial portion of these establishments are now operated by individuals of non-Japanese origin. Additionally, the customer base has evolved to consist primarily of non-Japanese patrons. The adaptation of sushi eateries to local contexts has become essential, encompassing aspects like architectural designs, seating layouts, illumination, musical ambiance, and, naturally, menu offerings. A rising count of sushi establishments beyond Japan presently feature menu items that have evolved from the local culture, exemplified by creations like the "California Roll" or the "Victoria Roll."

Figure 1.3.2: Mango chicken sushi from a U.S.-based restaurant. (Flickr by Daniel Lee is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Defining Globalization

For this textbook, we will define globalization as the acceleration and intensification of global interconnectivity, interdependence, and integration processes. Within this definition, special attention must be placed on the last word processes. Globalization is a process and not necessarily a condition. Steger (2017) writes that it is important to differentiate between process and condition as often the two concepts are confused, which can lead to sloppy definitions. A good example is how the author notes that the “often-repeated truism that globalization (the process) leads to more globalization (the condition)” (p. 11). Failure to distinguish between the two prevents scholars from making meaningful analytical differentiations between the origins and consequences of globalization, which could cause more confusion.

To help separate the process of globalization from the condition, scholars prefer to use the terms globalism and globality. Globalization is a process, which upon reaching its logical conclusion leads to a condition of globalism or globality. For Keohane and Nye (2000) globalism is when the world is characterized as being in a state of interdependence that crosses continents, fueled by linkages that emerge from the flow of goods, services, money, ideas, and information. Globality is like globalism, but its definition is a bit closer to a condition, or endgame. Globality is when a global society exists that is marked by intricate worldwide economic, political, cultural, and environmental interrelations and movements, rendering many of the existing borders and limits as largely inconsequential. In a truly global world, we would see the development of a global consciousness, or a global mindset where the welfare of individuals far away should garner the same attention from ordinary individuals as the welfare of their immediate neighbors.

Cosmopolitanism

Any discussion of a global consciousness eventually leads to comments about a world government, which is the concept of a unified global human community governed by a shared political authority. While the dream of world federalism, or a movement with the objective of establishing a federal world government, may not materialize anytime soon, there has been a centuries-long cosmopolitan tradition. Cosmopolitanism is a composite Greek word that refers to κόσμος (cosmos), the Greek for universe, and Πολίτης (politis) or citizen. Schattle (2009) notes that cosmopolitanism can come in various forms, including the aforementioned ideology of world federalism. There is also the notion of cosmopolitan governance, where individuals embrace the concept of holding multiple citizenships, signifying their affiliation with various political entities that hold substantial influence over them. In essence, they would hold citizenship in their local political communities as well as within the broader regional and global networks that exert an influence on their existence. This can be seen through the European Union, were a person living in the city of Barcelona may have regional citizenship in Catalonia, national citizenship in Spain and supranational citizenship within the European Union. These multiple levels of citizenship may be more of what the future holds, rather than a formal world government.

The other approach to cosmopolitanism is through mass migration, which involves the movement of substantial populations from one geographical region to another. In this mindset, migrants should be given at least partial membership rights in the host society, based on residency, in addition to citizenship provided to them from their home state. Thus, a migrant, depending on their movement, could be considered cosmopolitan, if not potentially a world citizen. Of course, many migrants are not provided rights in their host society, particularly irregular migrants, or people who travel to a state outside regular rules or norms, or without permission of the host government. Also referred to as undocumented migration, many societies do not permit irregular or undocumented migrants a pathway to rights and/or citizenship.

Still, even if a world government or cosmopolitan notions never make it into law, the notion of a global citizenship has strong appeal. Global citizenship closely follows having a global consciousness and involves the belief that individuals possess an obligation to individuals beyond their own nation due to their common humanity. Schattle (2009) defines a global citizen as an individual who makes choices with an awareness of how those choices affect the planet. Thus, a global citizen will have a global responsibility, consisting of two components. The first is self-awareness, where the global citizen realizes that their place in the world matters, and the second is outward awareness, which implies that the global citizen has a realization of humanity's ‘shared fate,’ that all life on the planet is interdependent.