1.1: Foundational Learning Theories

Major Learning Theories

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is based on the idea that learning is a change in observable behavior. It focuses on how external stimuli (rewards, punishments, etc.) can influence a learner’s actions.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

4-Panel Image of Whistle and Dog

Ivan Pavlov is best known for his experiment where learning occurred through association. It demonstrated how a neutral stimulus (a sound), when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food that naturally elicits a response), can cause the same response. For example, a dog learns to associate the sound of a bell with food, leading the dog to salivate when the bell rings.

Interactive Element

Watch the following video to see a re-enactment and explanation of Ivan Pavlov's discoveries.

John B. Watson

Baby used in psychology experiment to condition responses.

John B. Watson was a pioneering psychologist who is often considered the father of behaviorism. His work focused on the idea that psychology should be based on observable behavior rather than internal mental states, which were seen as too subjective. Watson's most famous experiment, the Little Albert study, demonstrated that emotional responses such as fear could be conditioned in humans through associations, illustrating that behavior could be shaped by environmental stimuli. His 1913 paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" laid the foundation for the behaviorist movement, advocating for the study of behavior that could be objectively measured and analyzed, rejecting introspective methods. Watson’s work shifted the focus of psychology from the mind to the behaviors of individuals, laying the groundwork for later behaviorists like B.F. Skinner. His contribution emphasized the importance of the environment in shaping behavior, influencing educational practices, therapy, and behavioral psychology in the 20th century.

The Little Albert experiment, conducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920, is a well-known study in the history of psychology that demonstrates classical conditioning, a theory of learning first described by Ivan Pavlov. In this experiment, an infant known as "Little Albert" was exposed to a white rat, which he initially showed no fear of. However, the researchers paired the appearance of the rat with a loud, frightening noise (striking a metal bar behind Albert). After several repetitions, Albert began to cry and show fear when presented with the rat, even without the noise.

This learned fear also generalized to similar stimuli: Albert showed fear toward other white, furry objects, such as a rabbit, a dog, and even a Santa Claus mask. The experiment demonstrated that emotional responses could be learned through association, supporting the behaviorist view that environment and experience shape behavior.

The Little Albert study illustrates classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus (rat) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noise) to produce a conditioned response (fear). This concept is foundational in behaviorist theories of learning, which emphasize observable behaviors and how they are influenced by the environment.

Why This Matters for Educators

Understanding classical conditioning helps teachers recognize how students may develop emotional associations with learning experiences. For example, if a student is repeatedly embarrassed during math lessons, they may develop anxiety around the subject. Educators can use this knowledge to create positive, supportive learning environments that help students form healthy emotional connections with school and learning.

Note

While historically significant, the Little Albert experiment raises serious ethical concerns by today's standards, particularly regarding informed consent and the psychological well-being of the child. It remains a cautionary example of the importance of ethical guidelines in educational and psychological research.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning includes learning through reinforcement and punishment. Positive reinforcement (e.g., praise, rewards) strengthens behavior, while punishment discourages undesirable behavior.

B.F. Skinner

(a) B. F. Skinner developed operant conditioning for the systematic study of how behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their consequences. (b) In a Skinner box, a rat presses a lever in an operant conditioning chamber to receive a food reward. (credit a: modification of work by “Silly rabbit”/Wikimedia Commons)

B.F. Skinner developed a framework for understanding how behaviors are influenced by consequences, focusing on four key concepts: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, as well as extinction. Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, such as giving a reward for good behavior. Negative reinforcement entails removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior, like stopping a loud noise when a desired action is performed. Positive punishment is the introduction of an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior, such as scolding someone for breaking a rule. Negative punishment occurs when a pleasant stimulus is removed to reduce a behavior, such as taking away a privilege for misbehavior. Lastly, extinction is the gradual decrease and eventual elimination of a behavior when it is no longer reinforced. Skinner's principles of operant conditioning emphasize how behaviors can be shaped and maintained through these various consequences. His most prolific experiments were conducted on rats and pigeons. Application: This theory is often used in classrooms through reinforcement strategies like praise for good behavior, token systems, or providing rewards for achievements.